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(_b_) The first clause may be omitted and still leave a complete and
intelligent sentence; if we were to omit the second clause, the
sentence would cease to have any meaning.

These tests may be practically useful; but they are rough and by no
means infallible. Let us see the reason for the distinction.

The name “Religio Laici” of itself tells us what thing is spoken
about. It is the name of one thing, and only of one thing. The clause
that follows informs us, indeed, of a fact concerning the poem; but
the information is given purely as information, not in order to keep
us from confounding this “Religio Laici” with some other “Religio
Laici” that did not borrow its title. “Work of Dryden,” however, is
the name of a class, for Dryden wrote many works. Now the whole class
is not here in question; it must be limited, narrowed, or restricted,
to one part of it, namely Dryden’s voluntary effusions; and it is thus
limited, narrowed, or restricted, by the relative clause “which can be
considered as a voluntary effusion.”

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[Footnote 1: To distinguish the different kinds of adjective clauses,
different names have been used: "co-ordinating" and "restrictive"
(Bain); "continuative" and "definitive," or "restrictive" (Mason).]

Examine the first sentence which we have quoted. It contains both a
co-ordinate clause, “Which borrows its title,” &c., and a restrictive
clause, “Which can be considered as a voluntary effusion.” In
distinguishing them we may begin by applying tests of almost a
mechanical nature.

(_a_) The first clause may be thrown into the form of an independent
statement; the second cannot. Thus: “The ‘Religio Laici’ borrows its
title from the ‘Religio Medici’ of Browne. It is almost the only
work,” &c.; or, “The ‘Religio Laici’ (it borrows its title from the
‘Religio Medici’ of Browne) is almost the only work,” &c. We cannot in
the same way destroy the close connexion of the second clause with
“the only work of Dryden.”

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XIV. Adjective clauses and contracted adjective clauses are marked off
by commas, if they are used parenthetically or co-ordinately; no point
is used if they are used restrictively.[1]

The “Religio Laici,” which borrows its title from the
“Religio Medici” of Browne, is almost the only work of
Dryden which can be considered as a voluntary effusion.

That sentiment of homely benevolence was worth all the
splendid sayings that are recorded of kings.

The advocates for this revolution, not satisfied with
exaggerating the vices of their ancient government, strike
at the fame of their country itself.

The ships bound on these voyages were not advertised.

Chapter VII., where we stopped reading, is full of interest.

The chapter where we stopped reading is full of interest.

We must explain this distinction at some length; for, on the one hand,
it is hardly ever observed, and, on the other hand, almost every
sentence that we write furnishes an example of it.

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Nor is any point used when, as often happens in such sentences, the
verb precedes the subject.

Not very far from the foot of the mountain lies the village
we hope to reach.

(3) An adjective phrase, that is a phrase used as an adjective, is
usually placed immediately after the word which it qualifies; when it
appears in any other place, a comma is often usefully placed before
it.

A question was next put to the assembly, of supreme
importance at such a moment.

The phrase “of supreme importance at such a moment” is to be taken
along with “question”; the comma shows that it is not to be taken
along with “assembly.” There is here a further reason for the point,
inasmuch as the phrase acquires from its position almost the
importance of an independent statement. But, where the connexion
between the adjective phrase and the substantive is very close, and
where there is no risk of ambiguity, no point is to be used. “The
morning was come of a mighty day”–such a sentence needs no point.
Observe also that co-ordinate adjective phrases take a comma before
them, wherever they are placed. (See next rule.)

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(2) An adverbial phrase, that is a phrase used as an adverb, is
usually placed after the verb; when it begins the sentence, a comma
follows it unless it is very short.

From the ridge a little way to the east, one can easily
trace the windings of the river.

In order to gain his point, he did not hesitate to use
deception.

In ordinary circumstances I should have acted differently.

No point would be used in the above sentences, if the adverbial
phrases occurred in their usual position.

He did not hesitate to use deception in order to gain his
point.

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The proportions of belief and of unbelief in the human mind
in such cases, no human judgment can determine.

There is the same reason for inserting the comma in such cases as
there is for inserting it after a long subject. Moreover, there is
often need of some device to remove the ambiguities that are caused by
inversion. In English, the meaning of words is so greatly determined
by their position that, in altering the usual arrangement of a
sentence, there is risk of being misunderstood. The danger of
inserting the point in this case is that the object may be read with
the words going before, and not with its own verb. If there is a
possibility of this, the point should not be used.

Of course no point should be placed after the object in such a
sentence as the following:–”One I love, and the other I hate.”

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In the worst volume of elder date, the historian may find
something to assist or direct his enquiries; the
antiquarian, something to elucidate what requires
illustration; the philologist, something to insert in the
margin of his dictionary.

Though many writers constantly punctuate contracted sentences in this
way, it is well not to insert the comma when the meaning is equally
clear without it. It is unnecessary in the following sentence:

Saul hath slain his thousands, and David his ten thousands.

XIII. Words placed out of their natural position in the sentence are
often followed by a comma.

(1) The object is usually placed after the verb; when placed at the
beginning of the sentence, it should be separated from the subject by
a comma, unless the meaning would otherwise be perfectly clear and be
readily seized.

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This rule of high pointing should be applied very sparingly, and might
really be restricted to cases like the “I think” of the second
example. Nowadays the tendency is against the pointing of such words
as “therefore” and “indeed.”

Where the words thrown in make a very distinct break in the sentence,
they should be pointed off by means of the dash or of brackets.

XI. Where two parts of a sentence have some words in common, which are
not expressed for each of them, but are given only when the words in
which they differ have been separately stated, the second part is
marked off by commas.

His classification is different from, and more comprehensive
than, any other which we have met.

This foundation is a nursing-mother of lay, as distinguished
from religious, oratorios.

These examples come within the principle of Rule X.

XII. When words are common to two or more parts of a sentence, and are
expressed only in one part, a comma is often used to show that they
are omitted in the other parts.

London is the capital of England; Paris, of France; Berlin,
of Germany.

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X. Words thrown in so as to interrupt slightly the flow of a sentence
are marked off by commas.

He resolved, therefore, to visit the prisoner early in the
morning.

This, I think, is the right view of the case.

The first ideas of beauty formed by the mind are, in all
probability, derived from colours.

The following are some of the words and phrases that come under this
rule: _therefore_, _too_, _indeed_, _however_, _moreover_, _then_,
_accordingly_, _consequently_; _in short_, _in fine_, _in truth_, _in
fact_, _to a certain extent_, _all things considered_.

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(2) No point is needed if there be a very close grammatical connection
between the dependent clause and some word or words preceding it.

They had so long brooded over their own distresses that they
knew nothing of how the world was changing around them.

Note that by the word “so” the clause “that they knew nothing” is
joined very closely to the previous part of the sentence; and that the
two clauses “that they knew nothing” and “how the world was changing
around them,” are even more closely joined to one another by the
preposition “of.” For the same reason, where the object is a clause,
there is no point before it.

He confessed to us that he had not thought over the matter.

A useful distinction will afterwards be drawn between the different
kinds of relative clauses. (Rule XIV.)

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